this, prototypes and classes

What this means

You met this briefly in Objects and JSON: inside a method, it means "the object the method was called on". The important words are called on. this is not fixed when you write the function. It is decided each time the function is called, by what stands before the dot:

function describe() {
  return `${this.title} (${this.done ? "done" : "open"})`;
}

const milk = { title: "Buy milk", done: false, describe };
const ada = { title: "Call Ada", done: true, describe };

console.log(milk.describe());
console.log(ada.describe());
console.log(milk.describe === ada.describe);

Buy milk (open)
Call Ada (done)
true

Both objects share one describe function. When you call milk.describe(), this is milk. When you call ada.describe(), this is ada. This is what lets many objects share one set of methods, which is the whole idea behind prototypes and classes below. This lesson covers the rules you need every day; this in depth, in the Advanced JavaScript course, covers every kind of call, including call, apply and event handlers.

Losing this, and two fixes

Because this comes from the dot at call time, it disappears as soon as you take a method off its object and call it on its own. This happens all the time when you pass a method as a callback, a function that some other code calls for you:

const list = {
  name: "Home",
  label(task) {
    return `${this.name}: ${task}`;
  },
};

console.log(list.label("Buy milk"));

const label = list.label;
try {
  label("Fix sink");
} catch (error) {
  console.log(`${error.name}: ${error.message}`);
}

try {
  ["Fix sink"].map(list.label);
} catch (error) {
  console.log(`${error.name}: ${error.message}`);
}

Home: Buy milk
TypeError: Cannot read properties of undefined (reading 'name')
TypeError: Cannot read properties of undefined (reading 'name')

The second and third calls have no dot, so there is no object: this is undefined, and reading this.name crashes. map(list.label) passes the function only, not the object it came from.

There are two standard fixes:

• Wrap it in an arrow function: (task) => list.label(task). The call inside has a dot again.
• Bind it: list.label.bind(list) returns a new function whose this is fixed to list forever.

const list = {
  name: "Home",
  tasks: ["Buy milk", "Fix sink"],
  label(task) {
    return `${this.name}: ${task}`;
  },
  labelAll() {
    return this.tasks.map((task) => this.label(task));
  },
};

console.log(list.tasks.map((task) => list.label(task)));
console.log(list.tasks.map(list.label.bind(list)));
console.log(list.labelAll());

[ 'Home: Buy milk', 'Home: Fix sink' ]
[ 'Home: Buy milk', 'Home: Fix sink' ]
[ 'Home: Buy milk', 'Home: Fix sink' ]

Look at labelAll. The arrow function inside it uses this, and it works. Arrow functions do not have their own this: they use the this of the code around them, here labelAll's, which is list. That makes arrows perfect for callbacks inside methods.

Constructor functions and prototypes

A backend creates many objects of the same shape: thousands of tasks, each with a title, a done flag and the same methods. Before classes existed, JavaScript did this with a constructor function called with new. You will still see this in older code, and it shows how classes work underneath:

function Task(title) {
  this.title = title;
  this.done = false;
}

Task.prototype.complete = function () {
  this.done = true;
  return this;
};

const milk = new Task("Buy milk");
const ada = new Task("Call Ada");
milk.complete();

console.log(milk, ada);
console.log(Object.keys(milk));
console.log(milk.complete === ada.complete);
console.log(Object.getPrototypeOf(milk) === Task.prototype);

Task { title: 'Buy milk', done: true } Task { title: 'Call Ada', done: false }
[ 'title', 'done' ]
true
true

new Task("Buy milk") creates a new empty object, links it to Task.prototype (that object becomes the new task's prototype), then calls Task with this set to the new object so this.title = title fills it in, and returns it. Prototypes in depth takes new apart step by step.

The complete method is not copied into each task: Object.keys shows only title and done. It lives once, on Task.prototype, and every task shares it.

The prototype chain

When you read a property, JavaScript first looks at the object itself. If the property is not there, it looks at the object's prototype, then at that object's prototype, and so on until it reaches null. This path is the prototype chain:

function Task(title) {
  this.title = title;
}
Task.prototype.complete = function () {
  this.done = true;
};

const milk = new Task("Buy milk");

const chain = [];
let current = Object.getPrototypeOf(milk);
while (current !== null) {
  chain.push(`${current.constructor.name}.prototype`);
  current = Object.getPrototypeOf(current);
}
console.log(["milk", ...chain].join(" -> "), "-> null");

console.log(Object.hasOwn(milk, "title"), Object.hasOwn(milk, "complete"));
console.log("complete" in milk, typeof milk.toString);
console.log(Object.getPrototypeOf([]) === Array.prototype);

milk -> Task.prototype -> Object.prototype -> null
true false
true function
true

• title is the task's own property. complete is inherited from Task.prototype: Object.hasOwn says no, but in, which follows the chain, says yes.
• toString comes from the end of the chain, Object.prototype, which every ordinary object shares.
• Arrays work the same way. map, filter and push live on Array.prototype.

That is enough to understand classes. Prototypes in depth goes further: writing your own chains with Object.create, what instanceof really checks, and why changing Object.prototype is dangerous.

Classes

A class is the modern syntax for the same thing. The constructor is the function that fills in a new object, and methods written inside the class go on the prototype automatically:

class Task {
  constructor(title) {
    this.title = title;
    this.done = false;
  }

  complete() {
    this.done = true;
    return this;
  }

  describe() {
    return `${this.done ? "[x]" : "[ ]"} ${this.title}`;
  }
}

const milk = new Task("Buy milk").complete();
console.log(milk);
console.log(milk.describe());
console.log(typeof Task, Object.getPrototypeOf(milk) === Task.prototype);
console.log(milk instanceof Task);

Task { title: 'Buy milk', done: true }
[x] Buy milk
function true
true

Under the hood, Task is still a function with a prototype, exactly like the constructor function before. Because complete returns this, you can call another method straight after it. instanceof asks "is Task.prototype somewhere on this object's prototype chain?".

Classes also add rules that catch mistakes: calling Task("x") without new throws a TypeError, and code inside a class always runs in strict mode.

Private fields, getters, setters and static methods

Classes have four more tools that you will use constantly:

• A private field, written with #, such as #id. Only code inside the class can read or write it. Writing task.#id outside the class is a SyntaxError: the program does not even start.
• A getter, get id() { }, runs a function when someone reads task.id. Without a matching setter, the property is read-only.
• A setter, set title(value) { }, runs a function when someone assigns task.title = value. It is the place to check the new value. Getters and setters work exactly as in plain objects (Objects in depth).
• A static member belongs to the class itself, not to each object. You call it on the class: Task.fromJSON(text). It is often used for other ways of creating objects.

class Task {
  static #nextId = 1;
  #id;
  #title = "";

  constructor(title) {
    this.#id = Task.#nextId;
    Task.#nextId += 1;
    this.title = title;
    this.done = false;
  }

  get id() {
    return this.#id;
  }

  get title() {
    return this.#title;
  }

  set title(value) {
    const clean = String(value).trim();
    if (clean === "") throw new Error("title must not be empty");
    this.#title = clean;
  }

  static fromJSON(text) {
    const data = JSON.parse(text);
    const task = new Task(data.title);
    task.done = data.done === true;
    return task;
  }
}

const milk = new Task("  Buy milk ");
const report = Task.fromJSON('{"title":"Write report","done":true}');

console.log(milk.id, milk.title, report.id, report.done);
console.log(Object.keys(milk));

try {
  milk.title = "   ";
} catch (error) {
  console.log(`Rejected: ${error.message}`);
}
console.log(milk.title);

1 Buy milk 2 true
[ 'done' ]
Rejected: title must not be empty
Buy milk

• The constructor assigned this.title = title, which went through the setter, so the spaces were trimmed.
• Object.keys shows only done. The private fields are hidden, and the getters live on the prototype.
• The setter refused an empty title, and the old title stayed. No code outside the class can put the task into a bad state.
• #nextId is static and private: one counter for the whole class, and nobody outside can reset it.

Inheritance with extends and super

Sometimes one kind of object is a special case of another. A recurring task is a task, with one extra piece of data: how often it repeats. extends creates a class that inherits everything from another one. super reaches the parent class:

• super(title) in the constructor runs the parent's constructor. You must call it before you use this.
• super.describe() in a method calls the parent's version of describe, so you can add to it instead of rewriting it.

class Task {
  constructor(title) {
    this.title = title;
    this.done = false;
  }
  describe() {
    return `${this.done ? "[x]" : "[ ]"} ${this.title}`;
  }
}

class RecurringTask extends Task {
  constructor(title, everyDays) {
    super(title);
    this.everyDays = everyDays;
  }
  describe() {
    return `${super.describe()} (every ${this.everyDays} days)`;
  }
}

const bins = new RecurringTask("Take out bins", 7);
console.log(bins);
console.log(bins.describe());
console.log(bins instanceof RecurringTask, bins instanceof Task);

class Broken extends Task {
  constructor(title) {
    this.extra = true;
    super(title);
  }
}

try {
  new Broken("x");
} catch (error) {
  console.log(`${error.name}: ${error.message}`);
}

RecurringTask { title: 'Take out bins', done: false, everyDays: 7 }
[ ] Take out bins (every 7 days)
true true
ReferenceError: Must call super constructor in derived class before accessing 'this' or returning from derived constructor

The recurring task got title and done from Task's constructor, plus its own everyDays. Its describe overrides the parent's, and reuses it through super. It is an instance of both classes, because Task.prototype is on its prototype chain. Broken shows the rule: this does not exist until super() has run.

A TaskList class

Now a class that manages many tasks. The list itself is private, and the class uses a private method, #find, that outside code cannot call. Watch what happens when a method is passed as a callback, the same problem as at the start of the lesson:

class Task {
  constructor(id, title) {
    this.id = id;
    this.title = title;
    this.done = false;
  }
}

class TaskList {
  #tasks = [];

  add(title) {
    const task = new Task(this.#tasks.length + 1, title);
    this.#tasks.push(task);
    return task;
  }

  complete(id) {
    this.#find(id).done = true;
  }

  get openCount() {
    return this.#tasks.filter((task) => !task.done).length;
  }

  #find(id) {
    const task = this.#tasks.find((t) => t.id === id);
    if (!task) throw new Error(`Task ${id} not found`);
    return task;
  }
}

const list = new TaskList();
["Buy milk", "Call Ada", "Fix sink"].forEach((title) => list.add(title));
list.complete(2);
console.log(list.openCount);

try {
  ["Plan week"].forEach(list.add);
} catch (error) {
  console.log(`${error.name}: ${error.message}`);
}

try {
  list.complete(9);
} catch (error) {
  console.log(error.message);
}

2
TypeError: Cannot read properties of undefined (reading '#tasks')
Task 9 not found

forEach((title) => list.add(title)) works. forEach(list.add) loses this, exactly like before: inside add, this is undefined, and reading a private field of undefined throws a TypeError. The mistake fails loudly at once, which is far better than quietly writing to the wrong object.

Composition over inheritance

Inheritance is tempting whenever you want "a TaskList, but with something extra". Suppose you need a list that logs every change, and another that records an audit trail. With inheritance you write LoggingTaskList extends TaskList and AuditedTaskList extends TaskList. Then someone needs both, and you write a third class, LoggingAuditedTaskList. Every new feature doubles the number of classes.

Composition solves this differently: instead of being a special list, the list has helpers that you pass in. Here the helpers are plain functions, called listeners, that the list calls after each change:

class TaskList {
  #tasks = [];
  #listeners;

  constructor({ listeners = [] } = {}) {
    this.#listeners = listeners;
  }

  add(title) {
    const task = { id: this.#tasks.length + 1, title, done: false };
    this.#tasks.push(task);
    this.#emit("added", task);
    return task;
  }

  complete(id) {
    const task = this.#tasks.find((t) => t.id === id);
    task.done = true;
    this.#emit("completed", task);
  }

  #emit(event, task) {
    for (const listener of this.#listeners) listener(event, task);
  }
}

const log = (event, task) => console.log(`[log] ${event}: ${task.title}`);
const auditTrail = [];
const audit = (event, task) => auditTrail.push(`${event} #${task.id}`);

const plain = new TaskList();
plain.add("Nobody hears about this one");

const watched = new TaskList({ listeners: [log, audit] });
watched.add("Buy milk");
watched.complete(1);
console.log(auditTrail);

[log] added: Buy milk
[log] completed: Buy milk
[ 'added #1', 'completed #1' ]

One TaskList class covers every combination: no listeners, logging only, audit only, or both. Adding a new feature, such as sending an e-mail, means writing one more small function, not another class.

A simple rule of thumb:

• Use inheritance for a true "is a" relationship that will not change, like RecurringTask and Task, or your own error classes in the next lesson.
• Use composition for "has a" or "uses a": a list that uses a logger, a service that uses a database. When in doubt, choose composition.

Passing helpers in through the constructor is called dependency injection. ZudoJS is built on it: @zudojs/container creates your classes and hands each one the helpers it needs, as you will see in the container lesson. Inheritance and composition, in the Advanced JavaScript course, explains why deep inheritance breaks and shows more composition tools: wrappers, delegation and mixins.

Practice

class Task {
  #priority = 3;

  constructor(title) {
    this.title = title;
  }

  get priority() {
    return this.#priority;
  }

  set priority(value) {
    if (!Number.isInteger(value) || value < 1 || value > 5) {
      throw new Error(`priority must be 1 to 5, got ${value}`);
    }
    this.#priority = value;
  }
}

const task = new Task("Buy milk");
console.log(task.priority);
task.priority = 1;
console.log(task.priority);

try {
  task.priority = 9;
} catch (error) {
  console.log(error.message);
}
console.log(task.priority);

3
1
priority must be 1 to 5, got 9
1

class Task {
  constructor(title) {
    this.title = title;
    this.done = false;
  }
  describe() {
    return `${this.done ? "[x]" : "[ ]"} ${this.title}`;
  }
}

class DeadlineTask extends Task {
  constructor(title, due) {
    super(title);
    this.due = due;
  }
  describe() {
    return `${super.describe()}, due ${this.due}`;
  }
}

console.log(new DeadlineTask("File taxes", "2026-10-01").describe());

[ ] File taxes, due 2026-10-01

const counter = {
  count: 0,
  increment() {
    this.count += 1;
  },
};

[1, 2, 3].forEach(() => counter.increment());
console.log(counter.count);

counter.count = 0;
const increment = counter.increment.bind(counter);
[1, 2, 3].forEach(() => increment());
console.log(counter.count);

3
3

Recap

• this is decided at call time: it is the object before the dot. Without a dot, it is undefined in modules and classes.
• Passing a method as a callback loses this. Fix it with an arrow (x) => obj.method(x) or with obj.method.bind(obj). Arrows have no this of their own, so they are great callbacks and bad methods.
• new creates an object linked to a prototype. Methods live once on the prototype and are shared through the prototype chain.
• A class is cleaner syntax for the same thing: constructor, methods, #private fields and methods, get/set, and static.
• extends and super build a class on top of another. Call super() before using this.
• Prefer composition, passing helpers in, over deep inheritance trees. That is dependency injection, which ZudoJS is built on.

Next, Handling errors: throw and catch errors, and write your own error classes with the extends you just learned.